Essay on Mobile Phone Innovation

Essay on Mobile Phone Innovation Background and History Mobile phones technology is founded on the radio technology developed in the 1940, which formed the foundation for the innovations in police vehicles and cabs, where two way radios allowed two way communications. The earliest mobile phone emerge in 1946, despite the fact that it was both bulky, consumed a lot of power and relied on poor battery technologies. It heralded the introduction of the first ever Mobile Telephone Service in the same year to facilitate automatic call switching, Khosrowpour (2006). Automatic meant that human operators were eliminated. The devices developed by Motorola found immediate use in the military as well as among the richest citizens and businessmen. Better cell phone services were introduced in 1964, and technological developments saw the development of the first portable mobile phone in 1981. Motorola developed the first ever, modern mobile phone in 1983, which was however heavy and relied on poor battery technologies, Hussain Hussain (2007). 2G and 3G Mobile Phones The introduction of Motorola’s Motorola Dynastic 8000X (first ever modern cell phone model) marked the start of the 1st Generation cell phones, which led into even faster advancements in technology, Partridge (2011). The emergence of GSM Digital Networks refers to SIM card operated phones that were run by digital networks, boosted the popularity of cell phones across the world, after the services were rolled out across the world. Other technologies such as the microchips, integrated circuits and better performing cellular networks resulted into the replacement of the 1st Generation mobile phones, with 2nd Generation phones, that had better battery technologies and weighed less. Analog transmission systems were fast replaced with digital transmission systems, which yielded increased efficiency and speeds of the new generation mobile phones. By the close of 1999, it became possible to download media content (ringtones) from mobile phones, which was quickly followed by an even mo re revolutionary innovation, internet accessibility. This marked the emergence of data packet switching and with it, third Generation phones. Data Packet switching refers to electronic splitting up of data into bundles that can be sent and received as a single unit. Mobile Computing Mobile computing, which arose from Personal Communication Services, refers to the creation of data collection, storage and processing and information management platforms that are free from all phones of temporal or spatial constraints. The removal of these constraints facilitates the ability of users of cell phones and other computing and communication devices to upload, download; access and process information onto the systems, from anywhere. The geographic location; mobile or static state of the users are no longer consequential to mobile phone communication, Hussain Hussain (2007). This revolution has its foundations in personal mobility services and wireless accessibility technologies offered through small terminals (cell phones). These technologies were in turn enabled through the emergence of more efficient data access (connection establishment time), the development of wireless and data access technologies such as CDMA2000 1X, GPRS EDGE, coupled with the emergence of QoS fl ags. CDMA2000 1X, GPRS EDGE and QoS flags are low speed technologies that allowed data to be sent and received between mobile networks using satellites. These have made it possible to network mobile phones and other mobile communication devices, giving them enormous computing power. Importance of Mobile Computing The emergence of mobile computing, which has been made possible by a convergence of a range of mobile phone technologies, has effectively resulted into complete computing power. Mobile phone users can access databases, manipulate data and get information through their mobile phones, without the need of heavy equipment, PCs or even laptops, Partridge (2011). Mobile phones now have enough power to rival conventional computers; complete with multiple data communication protocols. These include wireless, Bluetooth and infrared among many others. In addition, better memory technologies, coupled with the emergence of cloud computing have allowed virtually unlimited data and information storage , which in turn facilitates enormous capacity of mobile phones and other mobile communication devices to have enormous data processing power. Further, and perhaps even more significantly, is the fact that the efficiencies brought about by mobile computing results into large cost savings for organizat ions and individual citizens, Lee (2005). Business Applications The effects of the emergence of mobile phones and the technologies associated with it have been quite simply, revolutionary. In the developing countries, mobile phones are increasingly being in transferring money and as a critical payment system that has facilitated e-commerce transactions. This is not least because credit card and banking facilities are poorly developed, Klemens (2006). Other, more direct business applications include the dispatch and tracking systems for of luggage, vehicles and even animals. In addition, mobile phone technologies and particularly mobile computing has been significantly used in the processing of varied online transactions, enabling travelling professionals to work from their remote locations through applications such as Google Office and Portable Document Applications such as PDF readers etc. It is as well possible for professional teams to work through video conferences and other facilities. Conclusion With increasingly innovation, mobile phone processing and data storage power will rival many modern, conventional computers, resulting into massive gains from the efficiencies that would result from it, Lee (2005). In addition, the growing cost efficiencies and globalization, have and will render more and more business reliant on mobile computing. This is even more so, with the emergence of fourth generation mobile phones, coupled with the emergence of cloud computing, which will give more power to these devices. It is however critical to understand, that these benefits come with equally hurtful effects to the integrity of information, personal data security and the security of online transactions among other. References List Hussain, K. M., Hussain, D. (2007). Telecommunications Networks. London: Focal Press. Khosrowpour, M. (2006). Cases on Telecommunications and Networking. New York: Idea Inc. Klemens, G. (2006). The cellphone: the history and technology of the gadget that changed the world. London: McFarland. Lee, W. C. (2005). Wireless and cellular telecommunications. Boston: McGraw-Hill Prof Med/Tech. Partridge, C. (2011). Realizing the Future of Wireless Data Communications. Communications of the ACM , 62-69.

Essay on Benny Goodman, King of Swing - 2395 Words

Benjamin David Goodman was born in Chicago on May 30, 1909, the ninth of twelve children born to David and Dora Goodman, who both emigrated from Russia but met in America. David Goodman eked out a minimal living for his family by working for a tailor in a sweatshop. To help alleviate the family’s poverty, the children were urged to work as soon as they were old enough. For entertainment, David would take his youngest children to Douglas Park on Sundays to hear free band concerts. It was here that he first heard of the Kehelah Jacob band. Lessons were given for one quarter at the Kehelah Jacob synagogue. David Goodman enrolled his three youngest sons with the hopes that one day, their music would lift them out of poverty. It was here†¦show more content†¦This led to his first professional gig in 1921 in a vaudeville show at Central Park Theater. In 1923, at the age of 14, Benny Goodman left school to play with local bands, including Bill Grimm’s riverboat orchestra with Bix Beiderbecke. There is an interesting anecdote about Benny’s first meeting with Bix. One day, Benny received an emergency call from Grimm, asking him to fill in for Grimm’s clarinetist, who was ill. Benny arrived early in the day at the dock where the boat on which he was to perform was moored. Benny stepped onto the bandstand and immediately heard a shout to â€Å"get off there, kid! Stop that fooling around!† (Benny Goodman, 1979) Benny turned to see a fellow about four or five years older, holding a trumpet and staring disdainfully at Benny. That fellow, Bix Beiderbecke, did not want to hear any explanations from this young kid in knickers. However, Bill Grimm arrived before any trouble could start and introduced the boys. The young men hit it off and much fun and great music stemmed from that first session together. At that same time, Benny and his high school friends had earned the nickname, â€Å"The Wild West Side Mob†, not for their behavior, but because of their free, ragged, style of jazz. While this style made them great jam session musicians, it made it difficult for them to find work. Hot jazz was not in demand. Nevertheless, Benny’s ability to play cool, sweet jazz on demand ensured that he found plenty ofShow MoreRelatedBenny Goodman s King Of Swing1363 Words   |  6 PagesBritany Reed Dr. Keast Music April 15, 2015 Benny Goodman Benny Goodman the â€Å"King of Swing†. A man who owned the American Jazz and an amazing swing musician, clarinetist, and bandleader. This naming him as the infamous â€Å"King of Swing†. Goodman led the most popular musical groups known in America. Goodman was recognized as putting the most important jazz concert in history out to the public in 1938. Singlehandedly being the most recognized clarinet player for this era and doing it flawlesslyRead More SING SING SING Essay examples1262 Words   |  6 Pagestheir was so much energy and pizzazz in this music. He explained to me that it was all put together by a guy named Benny, and I understood why. Benny Goodman, born Benjamin David in 1909, one of twelve children, grew up in a Chicago ghetto with his family, who fled Russian anti-Semitism. Encouraged by his father, an immigrant tailor, to learn a musical instrument, Goodman took up the clarinet at a young age. From the start, he displayed an exceptional talent. Before he was in his teensRead MoreThe Great Depression And President Roosevelt s New Deal894 Words   |  4 PagesIssue†). Benny Goodman, however, broke this barrier, initially in 1935 with the first interracial jazz performance, and again in his 1938 Carnegie Hall concert featuring black musicians. Benny Goodman’s career did not commence with the Trio’s 1935 performance; a clarinet player from a young age, Goodman initiated his professional career in 1925 as a member of the Ben Pollack Orchestra. During his time with the orchestra, he recorded his first solo on the song â€Å"He’s the Last Word.† In 1931, Benny GoodmanRead MoreThe Great Depression And President Roosevelt s New Deal895 Words   |  4 PagesIssue†). Benny Goodman, however, broke this barrier, initially in 1935 with the first interracial jazz performance, and again in his 1938 Carnegie Hall concert featuring black musicians. Benny Goodman’s career did not begin with the Trio’s 1935 performance; a clarinet player from a young age, Goodman started his professional career in 1925 as a member of the Ben Pollack Orchestra. During his time in the orchestra, he recorded his first solo on the song â€Å"He’s the Last Word.† In 1931, Benny Goodman beganRead More The Jazz Age Essay1590 Words   |  7 Pagessongs quot;Orys Creole Trombonequot; and quot;Society Bluesquot; where recorded in Los Angeles in 1922. After 1923 the flood gates were open and African American Jazz became widely recorded. Early stars included other New Orleans musicians like King Oliver and Jelly Roll Morton, a Creole musician who, in the early 1920s, recorded over a hundred of his own and others Jazz tunes. Some of the records are solo piano, but many are of Jelly Roll with his band the Red Hot Peppers. These early releasesRead More Early Jazz Essay1136 Words   |  5 Pagesnbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;One of the most influential ragtime musician and entertainer was Scott Joplin. Scott Joplin was born in Texarkana, Texas on November 24, 1868. Through his talent on the piano and as a composer, he is generally known as the â€Å"King of Ragtime.† After leaving his formal music education at George Smith College, Joplin moved to Sedalia, Missouri where he was employed at the Maple Leaf Club of the Red Light District. He was later discovered here by John Stark who eventually publishedRead MoreElla Fitzgerald Biography Essay1454 Words   |  6 Pagesvoice was flexible, wide-ranging, accurate and ageless. She could sing sultry ballads, sweet jazz and imitate every instrument in an orchestra. She worked with all the jazz greats, from Duke Ellington, Count Basie and Nat King Cole, to Frank Sinatra, Dizzy Gillespie and Benny Goodman. (Or rather, some might say all the jazz greats had the pleasure of working with Ella.) She performed at top venues all over the world, and packed them to the hilt. Her audiences were as diverse as her vocal range. TheyRead MoreThe Radio And Its Impact On America1403 Words   |  6 Pagesof a star that owed his fame to the radio was Benny Goodman, often called the â€Å"King of Swing† (Britannica). He played clarinet for a band and his band became popular due to a spot on the radio show Let’s Dance. On a tour they almost considered quitting because of the dislike of their new style of music, but when they performed at the Palomar Ballroom in Los Angeles where the crowd, many fans of Let’s Dance, went crazy (Britannica). The craze of swing music began, but without the radio the music wouldRead MoreThe History of Jazz Essay635 Words   |  3 Pagespianist Jelly Roll Morton, and cornetist King Oliver. The first jazz record was made in 1917 by a New Orleans band the Original Dixieland Jazz Band, made up of white musicians who copied black styles. The New Orleans musicians discovered that audiences were eager for their music in the cities of the North and the Midwest. In the 1920s Chicago became the second major jazz center. White Chicago youths, such as tenor saxophonist Bud Freeman and clarinetist Benny Goodman, were excited by the New Orleans mastersRead MoreElectro Swing And Its Place Of Music History1833 Words   |  8 PagesELECTRO SWING AND ITS PLACE IN MUSIC HISTORY Pedro Osuna Ardoy Although many people would argue that electro swing is to be heard as EDM and not as jazz, electro swing can actually help us rethink the lines we draw between jazz and dance music because it shares the function of early jazz more than jazz as art music. What is electro swing anyway? A lot of people ask themselves this question, and nobody seems to have a closed answer. The website ‘electro-swing.com’ tries, but ultimately concludes

Disney The Decision Free Essays

Eisner and some of the executives were very interested in expanding and building a new theme park. When they were attending a meeting in Virginia, they were impressed by the post war restoration. The idea of building a theme park with American history as the main idea came to Eisner at that time. We will write a custom essay sample on Disney: The Decision or any similar topic only for you Order Now The idea became a plan and soon the executives of Disney found suitable land that was affordable with all amenities. An international airport was nearby; the land would not create any environmental issues. It was also near an interstate highway. The politicians of the state were also for development and growth. The land identified with all these benefits was in Prince William County in the heart of Virginia’s Piedmont region. What Eisner may not have known at that time was that the Piedmont region was home to some of Americas most influential and wealthy people. The region had also fought off several developmental projects from that area. Once the announcement was made by Disney about the building of the theme park, opposition started rising from most of the wealthiest people from the region. There was also opposition from various organizations like The Piedmont Environmental Council. Why Disney America was never built The various organizations started mounting negative publicity against Disney. Disney being an image conscious company was put in a dilemma. Eisner was of the view that the project had to go on. He was also supported by the Virginia’s Governor George Allen. In spite of various campaigns by Eisner, the opposition kept mounting against the project with historians and journalists joining the bandwagon against Disney. All the opposition finally caught up with Eisner who decided that continuing with the project was not worth it. The decision was made because Eisner knew that if the park was opened in spite of the opposition, after it was opened, it could lead to further trouble, especially from the historians. The need for focusing on the other projects and the risk to Disney’s reputation were the most important aspects that made Eisner decide not to go ahead with the project. Eisner decided that deciding not to go ahead with the project was the best option under the circumstances. If he had continued with the project, there could have been opposition from Historians who were already campaigning against the project. If Disney had to concentrate all its efforts on the Disney America project then there was a risk of losing focus on its other business concerns. There was also the risk of losing the reputation of Disney that had been built for years. These were the main reasons for ending the project, but the other reasons were because of the problems in the management of Disney where one key executive had died and another had resigned. There were also rumors that there was a leadership crisis in Disney. All these reasons made Eisner deciding against continuing the project. The best choice under the circumstances This was also the best choice that Eisner had. The project seems to have become a personal ambition for him. He had made remarks in a press release that would not have benefited the company. He also took it upon himself to go ahead with the project. This led to irrational thinking. Monitoring various projects would have actually become difficult if the company had so many hurdles in just a single project. The situation for the Disney company at that time was not good with the EuroDisney making a huge loss and the number of visitors dropping. Fighting a legal battle with the opponents of the park in Piedmont would have drained the resources of the company financially. There is evidence to suggest that Historians would have found fault with the many historical scenes depicted in the theme park, if it had been built. The Piedmont community and the environmentalists were also preparing for a legal battle with monetary contributions pouring in. This would have led to a long legal battle if the park had been built. So it was best in the interests of the company that Eisner decided not to go ahead with the building of the Disney America theme park. How to cite Disney: The Decision, Papers

Gender Stereotyping

Question: How do you feel about gender stereotyping? Whats your position on that issue? Answer: According to me, gender stereotype is an over-generalized and comparatively strait-jacket idea (Steffens, Buchner, Mecklenbruker, 2005) that is used for defining what is appropriate and normal for an individual based on the biological sex that he was born as (Dasgupta Asgari, 2004). This stereotyping according to me makes an individual weaker and unable to in their minds do tasks that otherwise if not for this stereotyping could have been done by them, such as a single parent looking for the partner to help raise children. It also gives fuel to the fire of discrimination that exists against the LGBT community. Reference Dasgupta, N. Asgari, S. (2004). Seeing is believing: Exposure to counterstereotypic women leaders and its effect on the malleability of automatic gender stereotyping. Journal Of Experimental Social Psychology, 40(5), 642-658. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2004.02.003 Steffens, M., Buchner, A., Mecklenbruker, S. (2005). Gender bias in fame judgments: Implicit gender stereotyping or matching study phase fame?. Psychonomic Bulletin Review, 12(3), 495-501. https://dx.doi.org/10.3758/bf03193794

Teaching Students with Special Needs - Basic Notes free essay sample

Studies show that â€Å"teaching with laughter† is an extremely effective way to teach students with special needs. This may include breaking up lessons with a short Youtube video or other non-related teaching activity, before regrouping and returning to teaching activities. Structure at home is incredibly important for students with special needs. Parents may need direction for strategies in the home so they can help the student progress in their learning and development. The â€Å"Learner Profile† document is a good one for the students to complete. This can help the teachers to understand the ways that students learn. Never give students with learning difficulties paper with blank spaces or dot-points. Everything needs to have lines drawn for them. Many students with learning difficulties may have Executive Functioning difficulties. Try not to give students paper that is photocopied back-to-back. All sheets need to be separated. Such students need incredibly explicit teaching and direct instruction. We will write a custom essay sample on Teaching Students with Special Needs Basic Notes or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page When covering sentences or words for students to be able to follow logically, cover the top of the sentence or word, not the bottom, so that the flow of reading is not disrupted. ODD – The four positive comments to the one negative is an important strategy for students with ODD. ADHD and other related behaviors need to be addressed in a positive way. For example, behavior cards need to say â€Å"listen carefully in class† as opposed to â€Å"calling out / disruptive†. Obeying these rules then need to be reinforced with rewards. There is a lot of research to show that students work well with music! Pop music with 60 beats per minute especially works!

A Critical Review of Leadership Research Development Essays

A Critical Review of Leadership Research Development Essays A Critical Review of Leadership Research Development Essay A Critical Review of Leadership Research Development Essay International Journal of Business and Management August, 2006 A Critical Review of Leadership Research Development Jun Liu Business School, Renmin University of China, Beijing 100872, China Xiaoyu Liu School of Labor Relations Human Resources, Renmin University of China, Beijing 100872, China Abstract Leadership research has gone through several phases of development in the past 80 years or so. The paper identifies the major theories in each phase, and investigates the strengths and weaknesses of the research. Among those theories, transformational/charismatic leadership and leader-member exchange (LMX) are heavily discussed. The paper also discusses the future trend of research in leadership areas. Keywords: Review, Transformational Leadership, LMX Leadership can be defined as a process that an individual influences a group of individuals to implement strategies and achieve the collective goals (Yukl, 2002). Research in the area seeks to find out what types of leaders are likely to be successful and what factors determine leadership effectiveness. Generally, leadership research has gone though four paradigms: trait approach, behavioral approach, situational approach, and the contemporary theories of leadership. The paradigms of leadership theories shift with the progress from static to dynamic view of leadership with the trait and behavioral theories reflecting a personal, the situational theories an interpersonal, and the contemporary theories a relational approach to conceptualizing leadership. That is to say leadership has been examined as intrapersonal competencies, interpersonal processes, and relational dynamics. More specifically, I review those approaches, their strengths and weaknesses as followed: The trait approach The trait theories assumed that leaders were born, not made. In the literature, Stogdill (1948, 1974) completed two comprehensive reviews by synthesizing more than 200 studies of the trait approach. His two surveys identified a group of traits that were positively associated with leadership such as intelligence, self-confidence, initiative, and persistence. However, Stogdill concluded that no combination of traits would guarantee leadership effectiveness. An individual does not become a leader solely because he or she possessed certain traits. Rather, the traits have to be relevant to situations in which the leader is functioning, thus situation should also be a part of leadership. Moreover, his studies showed that leadership was not a passive and static state but resulted from a working relationship between the leader and other group members. In essence, Stogdill’s research invoked the development of the later leadership approaches. The behavioral approach Behavioral theories focus on leader behaviors and assume that effective leaders are common in their behavior modes. Most of behavioral theories relied on the Ohio and Michigan’s studies (Stogdill, 1948), which described leadership styles based on the two dimensions of initiating structure (concern jobs and tasks, often called task-oriented behavior) and considerations (concern people and interpersonal relationships, often called relation-oriented behavior). The simple two-factor model provided a good starting point and basis for later researchers to conceptualize leadership. For example, Blake and Mouton (1964) joined the two dimensions in a model called â€Å"Leadership Grid† to describe various leadership styles. To enrich the two-factor model, later theorists also identified some supplementary leader 3 International Journal of Business and Management August, 2006 behaviors, for example, the participative behavior involving power sharing, delegating, and empowering (Lewin, Lippitt, and White, 1939; Miller and Monge, 1986). A key research issue in the behavioral approach is the influence of the two behavioral dimensions on organizational outcomes. Task-oriented behavior is found positively associated with subordinate performance, whereas relation-oriented behavior is related to subordinate satisfaction. Relation-oriented behavior has a moderating effect on the relationship between task-oriented behavior and performance. For example, Schriesheim and Murphy (1976) reported that task-oriented leadership without personal attention to group members might have negative effects on satisfaction and even on performance. Theorists generally agree that the two behavioral dimensions have additive effects on outcomes and â€Å"high-high† leaders who concern for both tasks and relations were expected to be more effective, though the statement has received support from only a few studies (e. . Misumi, 1985). Critique to the trait and behavioral approach The trait and behavioral approach are drawn from a personal construct perspective, which assumes that leadership occurs when a leader â€Å"express leadership† towards followers. The trait approach believes that leadership is mainly a personal attribute, better leadership results from developing the personal competencies of leaders (D ay, 2000). The behavioral approach extends the perspective by focusing on what leaders do rather than simply telling who the leaders are. The significance of the two approaches should not be underestimated because they are intuitively appealing and, with a great deal of research validating the bases of these perspectives, the approaches provide an in-depth understanding of the leader components in the leadership process (Bass, 1985). There are obvious limits with the two approaches. For example, trait approach is criticized to not provide very useful implications for training and developing leadership due to the nature of traits (Bass, 1985). Furthermore, as stated above, situation influences leadership. It is thus difficult to identify a universal set of leader traits for various contexts. Even some traits can help differentiate leaders from non-leaders, it is theoretically difficult to link traits to leadership outcomes such as follower motivation and group productivity (Yukl and Van Fleet, 1992). For the weaknesses of the behavioral approach, one criticism is that the two types of behaviors are too abstract to describe complex leadership styles; another refers to the inconsistent link between task- and relation-oriented behavior and outcomes such as morale, job satisfaction, and productivity. It is not clear how leaders’ styles are associated with performance outcomes (Bryman, 1992). The third criticism, being shared with the trait approach, is that the approaches pay too much attention to the leader perspective without considering followers and situations in which leaders exhibit their qualities and behaviors. It seems that leadership effectiveness can not be well understood unless interactions among leaders, followers and situations are studied. The situational approach Incorporating findings obtained from the previous studies, the situational approach assumes that there is no one best way that is transcendent across all situations, and further, the approach tries to discover the situational moderating variables that influence the effects of leader behaviors. The situational leadership model (Hersey and Blanchard, 1982), the contingency model (Fiedler, 1967), and the path-goal theory (House and Mitchell, 1974) are the representative situational theories. The theories have somewhat different emphases regarding their basic arguments. Specifically, situational theory emphasizes leadership flexibility – leaders should find out about their subordinates’ maturity (job and psychological) and task characteristic and then adapt their styles accordingly (Hersey and Blanchard, 1982). In the contingency model, however, leader behaviors are much more consistent and less flexible. Leadership effectiveness is 4 International Journal of Business and Management August, 2006 rimarily determined by selecting the right leader for a certain situation (characterized by assessing leader-member relations, task structure, and position power; Fiedler, 1967) or by changing the situation to fit the particular leader’s style. House’s path-goal model, being more complex than the other two, assumes that leadership styles vary not only with different subordinates but also with the same subordinates in different situations. On the other h and, the theories clearly share some common points. First, all the theories contain situational moderating variables. Second, they implicitly assume that leaders can properly assess pivotal follower and situational factors. Third, leaders make their behaviors contingent on the followers and the situation. Compared to the former approaches, situational models conceptualize leadership as an interpersonal process, concern with follower, task, and situational variables rather than focus only on the leader perspective. By addressing all the factors involving the leadership process, the approach provides a more comprehensive picture of the nature of effective leadership. The models share a number of weaknesses that limit their implications. First, the theories contain situational moderator variables, but the variables are often defined too ambiguously to operationalize. For example, in the situational leadership model, it is even unclear how â€Å"subordinate commitment† is combined with â€Å"competence† to form four distinct levels of â€Å"subordinate development† (Hughes, Ginnett, and Curphy, 1996). Similarly, task structure and task complexity have been ambiguously defined and measured in different ways. As a consequence, researchers could hardly generate specific and testable hypotheses. Second, the theories assume that leaders can properly identify the characteristics of followers and situation. However, the assumption is not realistic and it is very likely that different leaders in the same situation may conclude distinctively in regard to followers’ level of knowledge, maturity, leader-follower relationships, the degree of task structure, or the level of role ambiguity being experienced by followers (Vroom and Jago, 1995). These differences in leader perception could, in turn, cause the leaders to take very different actions in response to the same situation. Third, the approach tends to view leadership as an interpersonal process, but it lacks specific analyses on the dynamics of the influence process. Rather, they tend to view leadership as a â€Å"passive† process, leadership styles have to â€Å"fit† the followers and situations to obtain effectiveness. Leadership substitutes theory (Kerr and Jermier, 1978), being unique in its conceptualization, severely questions the conventional leadership wisdom by describing two types of variables (substitutes and neutralizers) that reduce the importance of formal leaders in organizations. Substitutes make formal leader unnecessary and redundant, and neutralizers prevent a leader from acting in a specified way or nullify the effects of the leader’s actions. Theorists tend to classify the theory into situational approach due to its focus on the factors (subordinate, task, and organizational characteristics) concerned by situational theories. On the other hand, Jermier and Kerr (1997) contend that the framework of leadership substitutes should be less viewed as a situational model, which calls for treating the traditional context as the independent variable to explain individual and group effectiveness. It can be believe that such efforts will complement our understanding of leadership functioning and its effectiveness. Contemporary leadership theories Unlike traditional approaches that view followers as unchanged or part of the situation, contemporary leadership theories treat followers as the counterpart of the leader and seek for positive transformation, dynamic relationships, and relational association with followers. The models try to provide insights into leadership effectiveness and implications to leadership development as well. Of the many contemporary theories, transformational/charismatic leadership and leader-member exchange (LMX) have been most heavily studied. 5 International Journal of Business and Management August, 2006 The transformational/charismatic theory Rather than concerns with all levels of supervisors in the organization, the transformational/charismatic theory shifts its concern to the upper leaders by separating transformational leadership (leaders) from transactional leadership (managers) (Burns, 1978). In the past twenty years, the stream of research generated large numbers of both conceptual and empirically studies with several major research issues having been addressed: First, specific leader behaviors reported by followers are used in this approach to define the transformational/charismatic leadership. In other words, the theories seem to rely heavily on the assumption of â€Å"one best way† by seeking transcendent leadership styles. For example, the four I’s (idealized influence, individualized consideration, inspirational motivation) have been most frequently examined in this stream of research. Furthermore, being different from traditional view, charisma is also conceptualized as one dimension of leader behavior, which is based on followers’ perceptions, although some dissenting opinions exist regarding the definition (Trice and Beyer, 1986). Second, the new approach argues that leaders, being different from managers, have to motivate followers rather than arbitrarily impose leader behaviors on followers or passively fit leadership styles to followers and situations. The new leadership seeks to achieve high level of motivational outcomes by transforming/changing follower self-concepts. For example, House and his colleagues (House and Shamir, 1993; Shamir, Zakay, Breinin, and Popper, 1998) proposed mechanisms that leaders use to transform follower self-concepts, which includes offering an appealing vision; making task and mission meaningful; developing a collective identity; and heightening both individual and collective self-efficacy. In the literature, the vision advocated by leaders received a large amount of attention (e. . , Bass, 1996; Shamir et al. , 1993). Third, compared to the above-mentioned approaches, the new approach better describes the underlying influence process. For example, Bass and Avolio (1993) proposed an influence process that transformational leaders evoke and meet followers’ high-order needs, which in turn promote commitment and performance. Shamir and associates’ (1993) research explained the reciprocal nat ure of mutual influence, in which leaders choose a vision that is congruent with followers’ values and identities. Reciprocally, followers select the individuals as their leaders who would like to espouse their values. Empirically, many studies have included psychological intervening variables (i. e. , psychological empowerment, social identification, role characteristics) between leader behaviors and outcome variables to examine the dynamics of influence (e. g. , Kark, Shamir, and Chen, 2003; Mackenzie et al. , 2001). Fourth, the new leadership is more change-oriented. Transformational/charismatic leaders are likely to emerge from crisis environment and they serve as change agents in organizations. Using data from 48 Fortune 500 firms, Waldman et al. (2001) illustrated a clear picture that charismatic leadership can predict performance under conditions with level of environmental uncertainty. Weaknesses and future directions of the approach Accordingly, the transformational/charismatic approach has some problems left for future research to resolve: First, the approach is criticized to regress back to the â€Å"one best way† of leadership with too much attention on leader behaviors (sometimes traits) but very little on contextual variables (Beyer, 1999). Although transformational/charismatic leadership has been examined to be applicable in various contexts, further attention should be paid to identify situational factors that facilitate or limit the effects of transformational/charismatic leadership. On the other hand, the consequences of transformational/charismatic leadership do not always appear positive; rather, some researchers have 6 International Journal of Business and Management August, 2006 identified the â€Å"dark side† of the new leadership (e. g. , Conger and Kanungo, 1998). For example, charismatic leadership tends to make more risky decisions that can result in serious failure. The future empirical studies should seek to identify more specific factors (i. e. , situations, leader qualities, task and follower characteristics) that induce the negative consequences. Second, the approach emphasizes the role the vision (articulated by the leader) plays in motivating followers. The underlying mechanism, however, is rather ambiguous (Conger, 1999). Simple identification and an attractive vision do not fully explain follower commitment and motivation. Moreover, the structure and content of leadership vision are also only partially understood (Conger, 1999). To resolve these problems, leadership values and the value interexchange between the leader and the follower should be incorporated in the models (Shamir et al. , 1993). Several recently emerged leadership theories (e. g. , Servant leadership, Graham, 1991; Ethical leadership, Ciulla, 1998; Value-based leadership, Fu et al. , 2002), though at the early stage of development and receiving little empirical support, provide solid rationale for remedying the deficiencies through the value viewpoint. For example, ethical leadership regards that values play a central role in the leadership process; servant leadership (Graham, 1991) argues that leadership values provide a system of rules or principles that guide the pondering, formulating, and communicating of the vision. Future studies should try to develop pragmatic models and empirically examine the effects of leadership values on leader behavior, leader-member relationship, influence process, follower behavioral and attitudinal outcomes, and leadership succession. Third, the approach has to extend its level of analysis for future development of the theories. As discussed above, transformational/charismatic leadership theories have specified the dynamic of influence process, but only at the individual or dyadic level. Although the specification helps to explain individual behavioral or attitudinal outcomes, it does not adequately address group and organizational processes (Yukl, 2002). The analysis also results in a less consideration of contextual factors involving the leadership process and the suggestion of a â€Å"universal† form of leadership. Future studies should seek to explain leadership’s effects on the interacting group including collective efficiency, group identification, etc. , and influence on the firm including culture, organizational change and so on. Finally, since the theories have addressed much about the role leaders play in organizational change, future models should include more change-related variables. For example, Yukl (2002) identifies a new behavioral dimension, change-oriented, to enrich the two factor model. Future studies should specify the real impact of the leader behavior on followers at the dyadic level, units at the group level, as well as companies at the organization level. Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) theory Being different from other leadership theories in which a leader treats followers in a collective way (Average Leadership Style, ALS), LMX theory takes a quite different approach and makes the dyadic relationship between the leader and each follower the focal point of the leadership process. Overall, the development of LMX theory has three stages: In the early studies of LMX, a leader’s relationship to the overall work unit comprises a series of vertical dyads categorized as being of in-group (high LMX relationship) and out-group (low LMX relationship). Subordinates who get well along with the leader and are willing to expand their role responsibilities become in-group members, whereas those who maintain only formal hierarchical relationships with their leader become out-group members. Subsequent studies of LMX concerned with the relationship between LMX and organizational outcomes. Researchers found that high-quality exchanges between leaders and followers produced multiple positive outcomes (e. g. , less employee turnover, greater organizational commitment, and more OCBs). In general, 7 International Journal of Business and Management August, 2006 researchers determined that good LMX resulted in followers feeling better, accomplishing more, and helping the organization prosper (Graen, Liden, and Hoel, 1982). The most recent emphasis in LMX research has been on leadership making, which emphasizes that leaders should try to transform the relationship into mutual trust, respect, and obligation to each other. Leadership making develops over time and involves different phases: a stranger phase, acquaintance phase, and partner phase, with the last phase generating the highest LMX quality. By taking on and fulfilling new role responsibilities, followers move through theses three phases to develop mature partnerships with their leaders. According to Graen and Uhl-Bien (1991), the third phase corresponds to transformational leadership, whereas the first phase corresponds to transactional leadership. Weaknesses and future directions of the approach In correspondence with the above three major stages of LMX theory, the following weaknesses are likely to exist in the literature and future directions emerge for addressing the inadequacies: First, by suggesting that some members of the work unit receive special attention and the others do not, LMX theory provide negative implications to organizational justice (McClane, 1991; Scandura, 1999). The perceived inequalities between in-group and out-group can have a devastating impact on the feelings, attitudes, and behavior of out-group members. For example, McClane (1991) pointed out the existence of in-group and out-group has undesirable effects on the group as a whole no matter whether the leader actually treats the members fairly or not. Scandura (1999) provided a comprehensive framework for future empirical examining the nature of the relationship through integrating organizational justice and LMX. Second, given a plethora of empirical studies on its antecedents and consequences, LMX is regarded as a universal theory with little concern for situational variables that may affect the exchange process (Green et al, 1996). An exception is Dunegan, Duchon, and Uhl-Bien’s (1992) work on the role of task analyzability and task variety as moderating the effects of LMX on subordinate performance. They found that the relationship between LMX and performance was significant when tasks have low analyzability/high variety and high analyzability/low variety, whereas the relationship became insignificant in the â€Å"low-low† and â€Å"high-high† situations. Such kinds of effort are still desired in LMX research in order to recognize the possible contingency. Third, LMX theory emphasizes the importance of leader-member exchanges, but fails to explain how high-quality relationship is established. Although the recent models highlighted the importance of role making (Graen and Uhl-Bien, 1991), mentoring (Scandura and Schriesheim, 1994), incremental influence, and type of reciprocity, the theory is still criticized for not explaining how the evolution of relationship actually occurred and how mature partnerships are built. On the other hand, the vertical relationships are likely to horizontally interact with each other. Future work needs to elaborate more about how the differentiated relationships and the interaction among LMXs evolve over time. Finally, there are questions regarding research methodologies, for instance, questions whether the principal measure of LMX theory is sufficiently refined to measure the complexities of the relationship (Garen and Uhl-Bien, 1995), and whether appropriate level of analysis and data-analytic techniques are specified and employed (Schriesheim, et al. 2002). Overall, more rigorous operationalization of the model is called for improving its validity. Conclusion Leadership is a complex process in which the leader, followers, and the situation interact with each other. Theorists have attempted to discover what traits, abilities, behaviors, relationships between leader and 8 International Journal of Business and Management August, 2006 follower, and/or aspects of the s ituation determine how well a leader is able to influence followers and accomplish collective goals. Based on my reviews, I have summarized the characteristics of the major theories in each of the four major paradigms and briefly discussed major findings, key research issues, strengths, weaknesses and possible future directions in regard to those theories. The two contemporary theories, namely transformational/charismatic leadership and LMX, are discussed in detail. Summarily, I would like to emphasize the following issues that should receive careful concerns in future studies: Clearly specifying the key components of theories. For transformational/charismatic leadership, theorists should clarify the nature of charisma, identify specific factors that induce possible negative consequences, set clear boundary for its behavioral dimensions, and the vision’s motivational influence on followers. LMX theory should minimize the inconsistence of defining leader-member relationship, offer clearly defined and reliable constructs, and clarify the exchange process. Extending theories by incorporating contextual factors. It has concluded that leadership is a complex process and there is no one best way to lead. Thus future studies should seek to adopt more contextual moderating variables and establish contingent model for providing specific implications for the particular situation. Effects of situational factors such as task, follower, work environment, and organizational variables should be systematically investigated in the leadership process. Clarifying the level of analysis. A good theory should include a clear and proper treatment of its level of analysis, which requires a valid and reliable measurement of the construct and choice of analytical methods. Leadership is a process involving multiple levels of factors and its effects occur at the all levels: individual, dyadic, group, and organization. Analyzing the phenomenon in a framework with clear levels and specification within- and cross-level relationships will definitely help us understand the influence process and the dynamics of leadership. The contemporary theories, however, appear to be rather obtuse to this issue. For example, transformational/charismatic leadership has not explicitly formulated its enquiring level with some appearing to be strictly at individual level (e. . , individualized consideration; Bass, 1985) while others being at higher levels (e. g. , leader behaviors that foster the acceptance of group goals; Podsakoff et al. , 1990). 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Working with Youth Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Working with Youth - Essay Example Without that belief, the young people will not be motivated enough to participate in challenges. Second, it is important to find useful positions for young people within the community. Providing meaningful contributions through such roles will help give young people the confidence they need. Third, groups must provide regular opportunities for young people to serve the community – at least one hour a week, but hopefully more. By providing an ongoing opportunity, these groups will build habits that will last a lifetime. Fourth, the group must provide a safe atmosphere where young people will feel the freedom to fail – and to get back up and succeed (Search Institute, 2011). The Tahoe SAFE Alliance is dedicated to eliminating violent behavior in teenagers. By focusing on such topics as mutual respect, self-esteem, and the traits of healthy relationships, this group seeks to undo much of the damage that has taken place in homes. There are several different elements to this groups curriculum, but the overriding theme is building an atmosphere of respect and dignity in which teens can reassemble their own self-concept and then move outward to work against violence wherever they find it (Tahoe SAFE Alliance,